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Introduction"Computer, draw a robot!" said my young cousin to the first computer he had ever seen. (Since I had instructed it not to listen to strangers, the computer wasn't receptive to this command.) If you're like me, your first thought would be "how silly" or "how funny"—but this is a mistake. Our educated and modeled brains have learned how to work with computers to a certain degree. People are being educated to accommodate computers, to compensate for the lack of ability of computers to understand humans. (On the other hand, humans can't accommodate very well themselves, but that's another story.) This little story is relevant to the way people instinctively work with computers. In an ideal world, that spoken command should have been enough to have the computer please my cousin. The ability of technology to be user-friendly has evolved very much in the past years, but there's still a long way till we have real intelligent computers. Until then, people need to learn how to work with computers—some to the extent that they end up loving a black screen with a tiny command prompt on it. Not incidentally, the computer-working habits of many are driven by software with user interfaces that allow for intuitive (and enjoyable) human interaction. This probably explains the popularity of the right mouse button, the wonder of fancy features such as drag and drop, or that simple text box that searches content all over the Internet for you in just 0.1 seconds (or so it says). The software industry (or the profitable part of it, anyway) has seen, analyzed, and learned. Now the market is full of programs with shiny buttons, icons, windows, and wizards, and people are paying a lot of money for them. What the software industry has learned is that the equivalent of a powerful engine in a red sports car is usability and accessibility for software. And it's wonderful when what is good from the business point of view is also good from a human point of view, because the business profits are more or less proportional to customers' satisfaction. We plan to be very practical and concise in this book, but before getting back to your favorite mission (writing code), it's worth taking a little step back, just to remember what we are doing and why we are doing it. We love technology to the sound made by each key stroke, so it's very easy to forget that the very reason technology exists is to serve people and make their lives at home more entertaining, and at work more efficient. Understanding the way people's brains work would be the key to building the ultimate software applications. While we're far from that point, what we do understand is that end users need intuitive user interfaces; they don't really care what operating system they're running as long as the functionality they get is what they expect. This is a very important detail to keep in mind, as many programmers tend to think and speak in technical terms even when working with end users (although in a typical development team, the programmer doesn't interact directly with the end user). If you disagree, try to remember how many times you've said the word database when talking to a non-technical person. By observing people's needs and habits while working with computer systems, the term software usability was born—referring to the art of meeting users' interface expectations, understanding the nature of their work, and building software applications accordingly. Historically, usability techniques were applied mainly to desktop applications, simply because the required tools weren't available for web applications. However, as the Internet gets more mature, the technologies it enables are increasingly potent. Modern Internet technologies not only enable you to build a better online presence, but also allow building better intranet/dedicated applications. Having friendly websites is crucial for online business, because the Internet never sleeps, and customers frequently migrate to the next "big thing" that looks better or feels to move faster. At the same time, being able to build friendly web interfaces gives alternative options for intranet software solutions, which were previously built mainly as desktop applications. Building user-friendly software has always been easier with desktop applications than with web applications, simply because the Web was designed as a means for delivering text and images, and not complex functionality. This problem has gotten significantly more painful in the last few years, when more and more software services and functionality are delivered via the Web. Consequently, many technologies have been developed (and are still being developed) to add flashy lights, accessibility, and power to web applications. Notable examples include Java applets and Macromedia Flash, which require the users to install separate libraries into their web browsers. Delivering Functionality via the WebWeb applications are applications whose functionality is processed on a web server, and is delivered to the end users over a network such as the Internet or an intranet. The end users use a thin client (web browser) to run web applications, which knows how to display and execute the data received from the server. In contrast, desktop applications are based on a thick client (also called a rich client or a fat client), which does most of the processing. Web applications evolve dreaming that one day they'll look and behave like their mature (and powerful) relatives, the desktop applications. The behavior of any computer software that interacts with humans is now even more important than it used to be, because nowadays the computer user base varies much more than in the past, when the users were technically sound as well. Now you need to display good looking reports to Cindy, the sales department manager, and you need to provide easy-to-use data entry forms to Dave, the sales person. Because end-user satisfaction is all that matters, the software application you build must be satisfactory to all the users that interact with it. As far as web applications are concerned, their evolution-to-maturity process will be complete when the application's interface and behavior will not reveal whether the functionality is delivered by the local desktop or comes through fiber or air. Delivering usable interfaces via the Web used to be problematic simply because features that people use with their desktop applications, such as drag and drop, and performing multiple tasks on the same window at the same time, were not possible. Another problem with building web applications is standardization. Today, everything web‑accessible must be verified with at least two or three browsers to ensure that all your visitors will get the full benefit of your site. Advantages of Web ApplicationsYes, there are lots of headaches when trying to deliver functionality via the Web. But why bother trying to do that in the first place, instead of building plain desktop applications? Well, even with the current problems that web applications have with being user-friendly, they have acquired extraordinary popularity because they offer a number of major technological advantages over desktop applications.
In this book, we'll further investigate how to use modern web technologies to build better web applications, to make the most out of the possibilities offered by the Web. But before getting into the details, let's take a short history lesson. Building Websites Since 1990Although the history of the Internet is a bit longer, 1991 is the year when HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP), which is still used to transfer data over the Internet, was invented. In its first few initial versions, it didn't do much more than opening and closing connections. The later versions of HTTP (version 1.0 appeared in 1996 and version 1.1 in 1999) became the protocol that now we all know and use. HTTP and HTMLHTTP is supported by all web browsers, and it does very well the job it was conceived for—retrieving simple web content. Whenever you request a web page using your favorite web browser, the HTTP protocol is assumed. So, for example, when you type www.mozilla.org in the location bar of Firefox, it will assume by default that you meant http://www.mozilla.org. The standard document type of the Internet is HyperText Markup Language (HTML), and it is built of markup that web browsers understand, parse, and display. HTML is a language that describes documents' formatting and content, which is basically composed of static text and images. HTML wasn't designed for building complex web applications with interactive content or user-friendly interfaces. When you need to get to another HTML page via HTTP, you need to initiate a full page reload, and the HTML page you requested must exist at the mentioned location, as a static document, prior to the request. It's obvious that these restrictions don't really encourage building anything interesting. Nevertheless, HTTP and HTML are still a very successful pair that both web servers and web clients (browsers) understand. They are the foundation of the Internet as we know it today. Figure 1.1 shows a simple transaction when a user requests a web page from the Internet using the HTTP protocol:
Figure 1.1 A Simple HTTP Request Three points for you to keep in mind:
Sure thing, the HTTP-HTML combination is very limited in what it can do—it only enables users to retrieve static content (HTML pages) from the Internet. To complement the lack of features, several technologies have been developed. While all web requests we'll talk about from now on still use the HTTP protocol for transferring data, the data itself can be built dynamically on the web server (say, using information from a database), and this data can contain more than plain HTML allowing the client to perform some functionality rather than simply display static pages. The technologies that enable the Web to act smarter are grouped in the following two main categories:
PHP and Other Server-Side TechnologiesServer-side web technologies enable the web server to do much more than simply returning the requested HTML files, such as performing complex calculations, doing object-oriented programming, working with databases, and much more. Just imagine how much data processing Amazon must do to calculate personalized product recommendations for each visitor, or Google when it searches its enormous database to serve your request. Yes, server-side processing is the engine that caused the web revolution, and the reason for which Internet is so useful nowadays. The important thing to remember is that no matter what happens on the server side, the response received by the client must be a language that the client understands (obviously)—such as HTML, which has many limits, as mentioned earlier. PHP is one of the technologies used to implement server-side logic. Chapter 3 will serve an introduction to PHP, and we'll use PHP in this book when building the AJAX case studies. It's good to know, though, that PHP has many competitors, such as ASP.NET (Active Server Pages, the web development technology from Microsoft), Java Server Pages (JSP), Perl, ColdFusion, Ruby on Rails, and others. Each of these has its own way of allowing programmers to build server-side functionality. PHP is not only a server-side technology but a scripting language as well, which programmers can use to create PHP scripts. Figure 1.2 shows a request for a PHP page called index.php. This time, instead of sending back the contents of index.php, the server executes index.php and sends back the results. These results must be in HTML, or in another language that the client understands.
Figure 1.2: Client Requests a PHP Page On the server side, you'll usually need a database server as well to manage your data. In the case studies of this book, we'll work with MySQL, but the concepts are the same as any other server. You'll learn the basics of working with databases and PHP in Chapter 3. However, even with PHP that can build custom-made database-driven responses, the browser still displays a static, boring, and not very smart web document. The need for smarter and more powerful functionality on the web client generated a separate set of technologies, called client-side technologies. Today's browsers know how to parse more than simple HTML. Let's see how. JavaScript and Other Client-Side TechnologiesThe various client-side technologies differ in many ways, starting with the way they get loaded and executed by the web client. JavaScript is a scripting language, whose code is written in plain text and can be embedded into HTML pages to empower them. When a client requests an HTML page, that HTML page can contain JavaScript. JavaScript is supported by all modern web browsers without requiring users to install new components on the system. JavaScript is a language in its own right (theoretically, it isn't tied to web development), it's supported by most web clients under any platform, and it has some object-oriented capabilities. JavaScript is not a compiled language so it's not suited for intensive calculations or writing device drivers, and it must arrive in one piece at the client browser to be interpreted so it is not secure either, but it does a good job when used in web pages. With JavaScript, developers could finally build web pages with snow falling over them, with client-side form validation so that the user won't cause a whole page reload (incidentally losing all typed data) if he or she forgot to supply all the details (such as password, or credit card number), or if the email address had an incorrect format. However, despite its potential, JavaScript was never used consistently to make the web experience truly user friendly, similar to that of users of desktop applications. Other popular technologies to perform functionality at the client side are Java applets and Macromedia Flash. Java applets are written in the popular and powerful Java language, and are executed through a Java runtime that needs to be installed separately on the system. Java applets are certainly the way to go for more complex projects, but they have lost the popularity they once had over web applications because they consume many system resources. Sometimes they even need long startup times, and are generally too heavy and powerful for the small requirements of simple web applications. Macromedia Flash has very powerful tools for creating animations and graphical effects, and it's the de-facto standard for delivering such kind of programs via the Web. Flash also requires the client to install a browser plug-in. Flash-based technologies have become increasingly powerful, and new ones keep appearing. Combining HTML with a server-side technology and a client-side technology, one can end up building very powerful web solutions. What's Been Missing?So there are options, why would anyone want anything new? What's missing? As pointed out in the beginning of the chapter, technology exists to serve existing market needs. And part of the market wants to deliver more powerful functionality to web clients without using Flash, Java applets, or other technologies that are considered either too flashy or heavy-weight for certain purposes. For these scenarios, developers have usually created websites and web applications using HTML, JavaScript, and PHP (or another server-side technology). The typical request with this scenario is shown in Figure 1.3, which shows an HTTP request, the response made up of HTML and JavaScript built programmatically with PHP.
Figure 1.3: HTTP, HTML, PHP, and JavaScript in Action The hidden problem with this scenario is that each time the client needs new data from the server, a new HTTP request must be made to reload the page, freezing the user's activity. The page reload is the new evil in the present day scenario, and AJAX comes in to our rescue. Understanding AJAXAJAX is an acronym for Asynchronous JavaScript and XML. If you think it doesn't say much, we agree. Simply put, AJAX can be read "empowered JavaScript", because it essentially offers a technique for client-side JavaScript to make background server calls and retrieve additional data as needed, updating certain portions of the page without causing full page reloads. Figure 1.4 offers a visual representation of what happens when a typical AJAX-enabled web page is requested by a visitor:
Figure 1.4: A Typical AJAX Call When put in perspective, AJAX is about reaching a better balance between client functionality and server functionality when executing the action requested by the user. Up until now, client-side functionality and server-side functionality were regarded as separate bits of functionality that work one at a time to respond to user's actions. AJAX comes with the solution to balance the load between the client and the server by allowing them to communicate in the background while the user is working on the page. To explain with a simple example, consider web forms where the user is asked to write some data (such as name, email address, password, credit card, etc.) that has to be validated before reaching the business tier of your application. Without AJAX, there were two form validation techniques. The first was to let the user type all the required data, let him or her submit the page, and perform the validation on the server. In this scenario, the user experiences a dead time while waiting for the new page to load. The alternative was to do this verification at the client, but this wasn't always possible (or feasible) because it implied loading too much data on the client (just think if you needed to validate that the entered city and the entered country match). In the AJAX-enabled scenario, the web application can validate the entered data by making server calls in the background, while the user keeps typing. For example, after the user selects a country, the web browser calls the server to load on the fly the list of cities for that country, without interrupting the user from his or her current activity. You'll find an example of AJAX form validation in Chapter 4. The examples where AJAX can make a difference are endless. To get a better feeling and understanding of what AJAX can do for you, have a look at these live and popular examples:
You'll see even more examples over the course of this book. Just as with any other technology, AJAX can be overused, or used the wrong way. Just having AJAX on your website doesn't guarantee your website will be better. It depends on you to make good use of the technology. So AJAX is about creating more versatile and interactive web applications by enabling web pages to make asynchronous calls to the server transparently while the user is working. AJAX is a tool that web developers can use to create smarter web applications that behave better than traditional web applications when interacting with humans. The technologies AJAX is made of are already implemented in all modern web browsers, such as Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, or Opera, so the client doesn't need to install any extra modules to run an AJAX website. AJAX is made of the following:
For the client-server communication the parts need a way to pass data and understand that data. Passing the data is the simple part. The client script accessing the server (using the The server script simply sends back the response via HTTP, but unlike a usual website, the response will be in a format that can be simply parsed by the JavaScript code on the client. The suggested format is XML, which has the advantage of being widely supported, and there are many libraries that make it easy to manipulate XML documents. But you can choose another format if you want (you can even send plain text), a popular alternative to XML being JavaScript Object Notation (JSON). This book assumes you already know the taste of the AJAX ingredients, except maybe the None of the AJAX components is new, or revolutionary (or at least evolutionary) as the current buzz around AJAX might suggest: all the components of AJAX have existed since sometime in 1998. The name AJAX was born in 2005, in Jesse James Garret's article, and gained much popularity when used by Google in many of its applications. What's new with AJAX is that for the first time there is enough energy in the market to encourage standardization and focus these energies on a clear direction of evolution. As a consequence, many AJAX libraries are being developed, and many AJAX-enabled websites have appeared. Microsoft through its Atlas project is pushing AJAX development as well. AJAX brings you the following potential benefits when building a new web application:
Common scenarios where AJAX can be successfully used are:
Potential problems with AJAX are:
Finally, before moving on to write your first AJAX program, here are a number of links that may help you in your journey into the exciting world of AJAX:
The list is by no means complete. If you need more online resources, Google will surely be available to help. In the following chapters, you'll be presented with even more links, but more specific to the particular technologies you'll be learning about. Building a Simple Application with AJAX and PHPLet's write some code then! In the following pages you'll build a simple AJAX application. This exercise is for the most impatient readers willing to start coding ASAP, but it assumes you're already familiar with JavaScript, PHP, and XML. If this is not the case, or if at any time you feel this exercise is too challenging, feel free to skip to Chapter 2. In Chapter 2 and Chapter 3 we'll have a much closer look at the AJAX technologies and techniques and everything will become clear. You'll create here a simple AJAX web application called quickstart where the user is requested to write his or her name, and the server keeps sending back responses while the user is writing. Figure 1.5 shows the initial page, index.html, loaded by the user. (Note that index.html gets loaded by default when requesting the quickstart web folder, even if the file name is not explicitly mentioned.)
Figure 1.5: The Front Page of Your Quickstart Application While the user is typing, the server is being called asynchronously, at regular intervals, to see if it recognizes the current name. The server is called automatically, approximately one time per second, which explains why we don't need a button (such as a 'Send' button) to notify when we're done typing. (This method may not be appropriate for real log-in mechanisms but it's very good to demonstrate some AJAX functionality.) Depending on the entered name, the message from the server may differ; see an example in Figure 1.6.
Figure 1.6: User Receives a Prompt Reply From the Web Application Check out this example online. Maybe at first sight there's nothing extraordinary going on there. We've kept this first example simple on purpose, to make things easier to understand. What's special about this application is that the displayed message comes automatically from the server, without interrupting the user's actions. (The messages are displayed as the user types a name). The page doesn't get reloaded to display the new data, even though a server call needs to be made to get that data. This wasn't a simple task to accomplish using non-AJAX web development techniques. The application consists of the following three files:
Figure 1.7 shows the actions that happen when running this application:
Figure 1.7: The Diagram Explaining the Inner Works of Your Quickstart Application Steps 1 through 5 are a typical HTTP request. After making the request, the user needs to wait until the page gets loaded. With typical (non-AJAX) web applications, such a page reload happens every time the client needs to get new data from the server. Steps 5 through 9 demonstrate an AJAX-type call—more specifically, a sequence of asynchronous HTTP requests. The server is accessed in the background using the Now it's about time to implement this code on your machine. Before moving on, ensure you've prepared your working environment as shown in Appendix A, where you're guided through how to install and set up PHP and Apache, and set up the database used for the examples in this book. (You won't need a database for this quick-start example.) All exercises from this book assume that you've installed your machine as shown in Appendix A. If you set up your environment differently you may need to implement various changes, such as using different folder names, and so on. Time for Action—Quick-start AJAX
Should you encounter any problems running the application, check that you correctly followed the installation and configuration procedures as described in Appendix A. Most errors happen because of small problems such as typos. In Chapter 2 and Chapter3 you'll learn how to implement error handling in your JavaScript and PHP code. What Just Happened?Here comes the fun part—understanding what happens in that code. (Remember that we'll discuss much more technical details over the following two chapters.) Let's start with the file the user first interacts with, index.html. This file references the mysterious JavaScript file called quickstart.js, and builds a very simple web interface for the client. In the following code snippet from index.html, notice the elements highlighted in bold: <body onload='process()'>
Server wants to know your name:
<input type="text" id="myName" />
<div id="divMessage" />
</body>
When the page loads, a function from quickstart.js called Before seeing what happens inside the <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" standalone="yes"?>
<response>
... message the server wants to transmit to the client ...
</response>
If the user name received from the client is empty, the message will be, "Stranger, please tell me your name!". If the name is Cristian, Bogdan, Filip, Mihai, or Yoda, the server responds with "Hello, master <user name>!". If the name is anything else, the message will be "<user name>, I don't know you!". So if Mickey Mouse types his name, the server will send back the following XML structure: <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" standalone="yes"?>
<response>
Mickey Mouse, I don't know you!
</response>
The quickstart.php script starts by generating the XML document header and the opening <response> element: <?php
// we'll generate XML output
header('Content-Type: text/xml');
// generate XML header
echo '<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" standalone="yes"?>';
// create the <response> element
echo '<response>';
The highlighted header line marks the output as an XML document, and this is important because the client expects to receive XML (the API used to parse the XML on the client will throw an error if the header doesn't set Content-Type to text/xml). After setting the header, the code builds the XML response by joining strings. The actual text to be returned to the client is encapsulated in the // retrieve the user name
$name = $_GET['name'];
// generate output depending on the user name received from client
$userNames = array('CRISTIAN', 'BOGDAN', 'FILIP', 'MIHAI', 'YODA');
if (in_array(strtoupper($name), $userNames))
echo 'Hello, master ' . htmlentities($name) . '!';
else if (trim($name) == '')
echo 'Stranger, please tell me your name!';
else
echo htmlentities($name) . ', I don\'t know you!';
// close the
The text entered by the user (which is supposed to be the user's name) is sent by the client to the server using a GET parameter. When sending this text back to the client, we use the Formatting the text on the server for the client (instead of doing this directly at the client) is actually a bad practice when writing production code. Ideally, the server's responsibility is to send data in a generic format, and it is the recipient's responsibility to deal with security and formatting issues. This makes even more sense if you think that one day you may need to insert exactly the same text into a database, but the database will need different formatting sequences (in that case as well, a database handling script would do the formatting job, and not the server). For the quick-start scenario, formatting the HTML in PHP allowed us to keep the code shorter and simpler to understand and explain. If you're curious to test quickstart.php and see what it generates, load http://localhost/ajax/quickstart/quickstart.php?name=Yoda in your web browser. The advantage of sending parameters from the client via GET is that it's very simple to emulate such a request using your web browser, since GET simply means that you append the parameters as name/value pairs in the URL query string. You should get something like this:
Figure 1.8: The XML Data Generated by quickstart.php This XML message is read on the client by the // extract the XML retrieved from the server
xmlResponse = xmlHttp.responseXML;
// obtain the document element
// (the root element) of the XML structure
xmlDocumentElement = xmlResponse.documentElement;
// get the text message, which is in the first child of
// the document element
helloMessage = xmlDocumentElement.firstChild.data;
Here, // update the client display using the data received from the server
document.getElementById('divMessage').innerHTML = helloMessage;
document is a default object in JavaScript that allows you to manipulate the elements in the HTML code of your page. The rest of the code in quickstart.js deals with making the request to the server to obtain the XML message. The // make asynchronous HTTP request using the XMLHttpRequest object
function process()
{
// proceed only if the xmlHttp object isn't busy
if (xmlHttp.readyState == 4 || xmlHttp.readyState == 0)
{
// retrieve the name typed by the user on the form
name = encodeURIComponent(document.getElementById("myName").value);
// execute the quickstart.php page from the server
xmlHttp.open("GET", "quickstart.php?name=" + name, true);
// define the method to handle server responses
xmlHttp.onreadystatechange = handleServerResponse;
// make the server request
xmlHttp.send(null);
}
else
// if the connection is busy, try again after one second
setTimeout('process()', 1000);
}
What you see here is, actually, the heart of AJAX—the code that makes the asynchronous call to the server. Why is it so important to call the server asynchronously? Asynchronous requests, by their nature, don't freeze processing (and user experience) while the call is made, until the response is received. Asynchronous processing is implemented by event-driven architectures, a good example being the way graphical user interface code is built: without events, you'd probably need to check continuously if the user has clicked a button or resized a window. Using events, the button notifies the application automatically when it has been clicked, and you can take the necessary actions in the event handler function. With AJAX, this theory applies when making a server request—you are automatically notified when the response comes back. If you're curious to see how the application would work using a synchronous request, you need to change the third parameter of // function calls the server using the XMLHttpRequest object
function process()
{
// retrieve the name typed by the user on the form
name = encodeURIComponent(document.getElementById("myName").value);
// execute the quickstart.php page from the server
xmlHttp.open("GET", "quickstart.php?name=" + name, false);
// make synchronous server request (freezes processing until completed)
xmlHttp.send(null);
// read the response
handleServerResponse();
}
The // make asynchronous HTTP request using the XMLHttpRequest object
function process()
{
// proceed only if the xmlHttp object isn't busy
if (xmlHttp.readyState == 4 || xmlHttp.readyState == 0)
{
So, if the connection is busy, we use // if the connection is busy, try again after one second
setTimeout('process()', 1000);
If the line is clear, you can safely make a new request. The line of code that prepares the server request but doesn't commit it is: // execute the quickstart.php page from the server
xmlHttp.open("GET", 'quickstart.php?name=' + name, true);
The first parameter specifies the method used to send the user name to the server, and you can choose between GET and POST (learn more about them in Chapter 3). The second parameter is the server page you want to access; when the first parameter is GET, you send the parameters as name/value pairs in the query string. The third parameter is true if you want the call to be made asynchronously. When making asynchronous calls, you don't wait for a response. Instead, you define another function to be called automatically when the state of the request changes: // define the method to handle server responses
xmlHttp.onreadystatechange = handleServerResponse;
Once you've set this option, you can rest calm—the // make the server request
xmlHttp.send(null);
}
Let's now look at the // executed automatically when a message is received from the server
function handleServerResponse()
{
// move forward only if the transaction has completed
if (xmlHttp.readyState == 4)
{
// status of 200 indicates the transaction completed successfully
if (xmlHttp.status == 200)
{
The After the response is received and used, the process is restarted using the // restart sequence
setTimeout('process()', 1000);
Finally, let's reiterate what happens after the user loads the page (you can refer to Figure 1.7 for a visual representation):
SummaryThis chapter was all about a quick introduction to the world of AJAX. In order to proceed with learning how to build AJAX applications, it's important to understand why and where they are useful. As with any other technology, AJAX isn't the answer to all problems, but it offers means to solve some of them. AJAX combines client-side and server-side functionality to enhance the user experience of your site. The
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